Modifying bacteriophage

ABSTRACT

A method for modifying the genome of a lytic target phage, uses of the method and products thereof are described. Compositions comprising such phage are also described. The compositions may be formulated as a medicament, which are useful for human treatment and may treat various conditions, including bacterial infections.

The present invention relates to a method for modifying the genome of a lytic target phage, uses of the method and products thereof.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a 371 National Stage filing of International Application No. PCT/EP2015/073296, filed Oct. 8, 2015, which claims the benefit of GB Application No. 1417810.7, filed Oct. 8, 2014, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

SEQUENCE LISTING

This application includes as part of its disclosure a biological sequence listing text file named “43297o2801.txt” having a size of 120,823 bytes that was created Apr. 6, 2017, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION

Bacteriophage are the most abundant organisms in the world with an estimated 10³⁰ present at any one time. Bacteriophage reportedly can inhabit every imaginable environment (Brabban et al., 2005), thus providing a huge reservoir of biological diversity for use in biotechnology. Phage have been used in a variety of applications, such as phage display to characterise protein-protein interactions (Smith and Petrenko, 1997), diagnostic tests for the rapid identification of bacterial pathogens (Dobozi-King et al., 2005), and in the treatment of bacterial infections by “phage therapy” (Harper et al., 2011). Another use of phage is as the basis for modification to make tailored gene delivery vehicles, which can be used for the delivery of genes encoding toxic proteins to target pathogenic bacteria. Such an approach is described in the SASPject system (WO2009/019293), in which bacteriophage are engineered to be non-lytic, thus ultimately non-viable, and to carry a SASP gene expression cassette, which is delivered into the targeted bacteria, which leads to rapid SASP expression. SASP are Small Acid-soluble Spore Proteins, which protect the DNA of Gram positive bacterial endospores during dormancy. However, upon expression of SASP in vegetative cells, rapid binding of SASP to the cell's DNA in a non-sequence specific manner (Nicholson et al., 1990) leads to rapid cell death.

Phage can be broadly split into temperate and non-temperate phage (Abedon, 2008). Temperate phage are able to exist in two distinct lifestyles. In one lifestyle, temperate phage replicate “lytically”—they infect the host cell, replicate and make new phage progeny, a process which ends in the lysis of the cell and the release of mature phage particles. In the other lifestyle, temperate phage infect the cell and integrate into the host cell genome, usually at specific attachment sites, to become “prophage”. In so doing, they become a transient part of the host cell's genome, and are replicated together with the host cell's DNA. Integrated prophage are generally harmless to their host cell whilst in this integrated state, and can often provide selective advantage to the cell, by providing extra genes to the cell, e.g. CTX toxin genes are provided by CTX prophage to Vibrio cholera, increasing the virulence of such strains compared to non-toxin gene carrying strains (Waldor and Mekalanos, 1996). In contrast, non-temperate phage, otherwise known as “lytic” phage, are only able to replicate in the lytic lifestyle described above—they cannot integrate into host cell DNA and therefore never become part of the host cell genome: Henceforth such phages will be described as “obligately lytic” to distinguish them from temperate phage which are capable of both lytic and prophage replication.

When choosing phage for genetic modification, for instance when such phage are to act as delivery vectors for a gene encoding an anti-bacterial protein, such as SASP, the amenability of the phage to genetic modification is an important factor. Broadly speaking, temperate bacteriophage are easily genetically modified, providing that the bacterial host species can be manipulated by standard molecular genetic techniques involving recombination and resistance marker selection, or a recombineering system (Thomason et al., 2014).

Temperate phage, in the form of lysogens which carry integrated phage DNA as a prophage, can be engineered to carry exogenous DNA linked to any of a wide array of selectable markers, such as antibiotic or heavy metal resistance markers. Such markers may be linked to exogenous DNA and flanked by regions of prophage DNA, and cloned into suitable vectors which are not replicative (suicide vectors) in the bacterial host (lysogen). Upon introduction of such plasmids into the bacterial lysogen, by common methods such as conjugation or chemical or electro-transformation, recombinants which have integrated via the homologous sequences present on the plasmid, may be selected via the resistance marker linked to the exogenous DNA. Counter-selectable markers can also be used in engineering temperate phage. Recombinant phage which have retained the resistance marker can be screened by common methods such as PCR. Alternatively a counter-selectable marker, such as sacB, can be engineered into the backbone of the plasmid used for engineering such phage, and by selecting for the resistance marker linked to the exogenous DNA but against the counter-selectable marker, recombinant prophage can be isolated carrying only the exogenous DNA. The genotype can be confirmed by PCR. Such vectors are commonly available. Such engineered phage can be induced from the lysogenised strain, for example by the addition of Mitomycin C (Williamson et al., 2002) at which point the phage excise from the host chromosome and enter their lytic phase such that the retained marker can no longer be selected, but the marker and exogenous DNA remain in the phage genome.

Isolation of genetically manipulated lytic phage, however, cannot be achieved using the same methods described above. For example it is impossible to use conventional positive selection in order to isolate engineered obligately lytic phage, such as antibiotic and heavy metal resistance markers, which confer resistance to bacteria, cannot be selected due to the obligately lytic lifestyle of the phage. The DNA of the phage never becomes part of the host cell genome and therefore selectable resistance markers which convey resistance to the host are not selectable when located on obligately lytic phage.

Some techniques have been developed for the engineering of lytic phage. One such example is the BRED technique (Bacteriophage Recombineering of Electroporated DNA) (Marinelli et al., 2008), which uses a “recombineering” approach, and has been described for the engineering of Mycobacterium phage. Recombineering methods for the manipulation of bacterial genomes were first described in the λ Red system (Yu et al., 2000). In this technique the recombination proteins Exo and Beta catalyse the efficient recombination of linear DNA sequence introduced into host cell via transformation. The BRED approach similarly utilises recombination promoting proteins—the RecE/RecT-like proteins gp60 and gp61 from a Mycobacterium bacteriophage—to promote high levels of recombination when phage genomes are co-transformed with linear “targeting” DNA fragments into M. smegmatis cells. Recombinant phage are then screened and identified with relative ease due to the high efficiency of recombination. However, such an approach relies upon the development of an efficient recombineering system in the chosen bacterial species. Furthermore, phage genomes are large (Hendrix, 2009) and transformation of large DNA molecules is inefficient even in readily transformable bacteria such as E. coli (Sheng et al, 1995), and efficient transformation techniques have not been developed for many bacterial species.

Specific techniques have been developed for the engineering of certain bacteriophage. For instance a technique known as RIPh (Rho*-mediated inhibition of phage replication) has been developed for phage T4 (Pouillot et al., 2010). Early genes essential to phage replication are transcribed as concatenated run-through RNAs requiring the host transcription terminator factor Rho for the production of the early proteins. It was found that engineering E. coli to contain an inducer-controlled overexpressed mutated copy of Rho, called Rho*, inhibits production of the early T4 proteins and thus reversibly inhibits T4 phage replication, but has a minimal effect on host cell viability. In this state the T4 genome does not replicate and there is not continuation of the phage lifecycle through to mature phage synthesis and lysis, but it is not lost from the cell, and is a substrate for recombination. In the RIPh technique, the λ Red system is used to target recombination into the T4 genome whilst it is in this stable suspended state. Removal of the inducer allows the phage to continue its lifecycle and mature, engineered, phage are formed.

Another example of specific obligately lytic phage engineering systems is found in T7 phage. The E. coli genes trxA and cmk are required for the propogation of phage T7, but are not required for the growth of the host cell (Qimron et al, 2006; Mark, 1976). Therefore T7 could be engineered to carry either of these “marker” genes, by selecting recombinant phage on engineered host cells that lack the marker genes. However, in both the T4 and T7 example, quite specific and detailed knowledge of the phage's replication machinery, or the host cell genes specifically required for phage replication, is required.

It would be desirable to have a technique for modifying the genome of lytic phage which does not rely upon specific detailed knowledge of the genes involved in the replication pathway of the phage or the genes of the host cell required for phage propagation in the cell. It would further be desirable for such a technique to be broadly applicable to phage from any bacterial species.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides a method for modifying the genome of a lytic target phage, wherein the target phage genome includes a first target sequence and a second target sequence, which method comprises:

-   (a) providing a vector which contains a phage-targeting region     comprising a host range determinant of a marker phage, different     from the host range determinant of the target phage, wherein the     phage-targeting region is flanked by first and second flanking     sequences homologous to the first and second target sequences of the     target phage genome; -   (b) introducing the vector into a first host cell, which host cell     is a host for the target phage; -   (c) infecting the first host cell with the target phage; -   (d) allowing replication and recombination of phage to take place     whereby the genome of the target phage is modified; -   (e) propagating resultant phage on a second host cell, which host     cell is a host for the marker phage and not the target phage; and     harvesting the resultant phage.

It has surprisingly been found that a host range determinant of a phage can be used as a selectable marker to modify the genome of a related phage. We term this technique HOst Range Determinant Selection (HORDS). This invention is particularly useful for the genetic modification of obligately lytic phage which cannot form lysogens, as it provides a means of genetic selection that is not reliant upon selecting characteristics of the host cell, and instead selects for a characteristic inherited by the phage in its lytic state.

This technique does not rely upon specific detailed knowledge of the genes involved in the phage's replication pathway and/or the host cell gene(s) required for phage propagation in the cell, therefore not requiring undue experimentation on the phage prior to manipulation. Furthermore, this technique is broadly applicable to phage from any bacterial species. This technique requires the identification of factors from the phage which dictate its host range, together with factors from related phage. This can be readily performed by those skilled in the art, as directed by this application.

The genome of the lytic target phage may be modified by incorporation of an exogenous DNA sequence therein, by incorporation of a mutation such as a point mutation, or by creating a deletion. Combinations of these modifications may also be made.

Because the first and second flanking sequences of the phage targeting region are homologous to the first and second target sequences of the target phage genome, once the first host cell contains both the vector and the target phage, the phage can replicate and recombination can take place at the pairs of sequences, homologous with one another. Following recombination, only those resultant phage carrying the host range determinant of the marker phage may propagate in the second host cell. This enables selection of desired resultant phage containing the marker phage host range determinant.

The first and second target sequences of the target phage genome may be contiguous or non-contiguous. In one arrangement, the first and second target sequences of the target phage general are non-contiguous. According to this arrangement, where a recombination event occurs between the first and second flanking sequences and the first and second target sequences the region of DNA between the first and second target sequences is excised from the target phage genome resulting in a deletion. Advantageously, where the first and second target sequences of the target phage genome flank a phage gene or part thereof, such deletion results in inactivation of the gene following recombination. In one arrangement the phage gene is a lysis gene such as an endolysin. In this way the lytic target phage can be rendered non-lytic.

Where modification of the genome of the lytic target phage involves incorporation of an exogenous DNA sequence, the phage-targeting region of the vector further comprises an exogenous DNA sequence for incorporation into the genome of the target phage. Because the exogenous DNA sequence and the host range determinant of the marker phage both fall within the first and second flanking sequences of the phage-targeting region, recombination of the phage to select for the host range determinant will result in incorporation of the exogenous DNA sequence in the resultant phage. According to this arrangement, the first and second target sequences of the target phage genome may be contiguous or non-contiguous. Where they are non-contiguous, incorporation of the exogenous DNA sequence will simultaneously result in deletion of a region of the genome. Where the first and second target sequences are positioned in a phage gene or where they flank a phage gene or part thereof, incorporation of the exogenous DNA sequence will simultaneously result in inactivation of the gene following recombination.

Where a mutation, such as a point mutation is needed to be incorporated into the lytic target phage, at least one of the first and second flanking sequences in the phage-targeting region would contain the mutation as compared with the first and second target sequences of the target phage genome. Upon replication and recombination of the phage the genome of the target phage would be modified so as to incorporate the mutation. In this way, phage would be isolated carrying the host range determinant of the marker phage, and could be screened for the presence of the mutation.

As described above, introduction of such mutations could be combined with the incorporation of exogenous DNA sequence optionally together with a deletion in the target phage.

Typically the vector which contains the phage-targeting region is a plasmid. Such vectors are capable of replication in the first host cell.

According to the present invention the host range determinant of the marker phage typically encodes a baseplate protein, or tail fibre protein, or region thereof. Generally, in the case of tail fibre proteins, each comprises a C-terminal receptor binding region for binding to the target bacteria and an N-terminal region linking the C-terminal receptor binding region to the body of the bacteriophage. In one arrangement, taking Phi33 and related phage as an example, the N-terminal region comprises amino acids 1 to 628 of the tail fibre protein and the C-terminal region comprises the amino acids 629 to 964 of the tail fibre protein.

The C-terminal region may have no more than 96% amino acid sequence identity with the C-terminal region of bacteriophage Phi33 and may be from any one of the bacteriophage Phi33, LBL3, SPM-1, F8, PB1, KPP12, LMA2, SN, 14-1, JG024, NH-4, PTP47, C36, PTP92 and PTP93. Lower amino acid sequence identities in the C-terminal region are preferred. Advantageously the sequence identity is less than 90%, more advantageously less than 80%, preferably less than 70%, more preferably less than 60%, still more preferably less than 50%, particularly preferably less than 40%, more particularly preferably less than 30%. The N-terminal region may have at least 90% and advantageously at least 95% amino acid sequence identity with the N-terminal region of bacteriophage Phi33 and may be from any one of bacteriophage Phi33, LBL3, SPM-1, F8, PB1, KPP12, LMA2, SN, 14-1, JG024, NH-4, PTP47, C36, PTP92 and PTP93. Typically, each tail fibre protein has more than 80% amino acid sequence identity with the tail fibre amino acid sequence of bacteriophage Phi33, advantageously greater than 85%, preferably greater than 90% and more preferably greater than 95% sequence identity therewith. The N-terminal region and the C-terminal region may be from the same bacteriophage to provide a homologous tail fibre protein. Alternatively, the N-terminal region and the C-terminal region may be from different bacteriophage tail fibre proteins to provide a heterologous tail fibre protein. In one arrangement where the phage tail fibre protein is homologous, each tail fibre protein is from a bacteriophage selected from Phi33, LBL3, SPM-1, F8, PB1, KPP12, LMA2, SN, 14-1, JG024, NH-4, PTP47, C36, PTP92 and PTP93.

In one arrangement, this invention may be used to modify obligately lytic bacteriophage. In another arrangement, the invention may be used to modify a temperate phage, during lytic growth.

In a further arrangement, this invention is particularly useful in the engineering of obligately lytic bacteriophage for use as gene delivery vehicles. In a preferred arrangement, this invention could be used to modify lytic phage to carry a gene for an antibacterial protein.

As an alternative to conventional antibiotics, one family of proteins which demonstrate broad spectrum antibacterial activity inside bacteria comprises the α/β-type small acid-soluble spore proteins (known henceforth as SASP). Inside bacteria, SASP bind to the bacterial DNA: visualisation of this process, using cryoelectron microscopy, has shown that SspC, the most studied SASP, coats the DNA and forms protruding domains and modifies the DNA structure (Francesconi et al., 1988; Frenkiel-Krispin et al., 2004) from B-like (pitch 3.4 nm) towards A-like (3.18 nm; A-like DNA has a pitch of 2.8 nm). The protruding SspC motifs interact with adjacent DNA-SspC filaments packing the filaments into a tight assembly of nucleo-protein helices. In 2008, Lee et al. reported the crystal structure at 2.1 Á resolution of an α/β-type SASP bound to a 10-bp DNA duplex. In the complex, the α/β-type SASP adopt a helix-turn-helix motif, interact with DNA through minor groove contacts, bind to approximately 6 bp of DNA as a dimer and the DNA is in an A-B type conformation. In this way DNA replication is halted and, where bound, SASP prevent DNA transcription. SASP bind to DNA in a non-sequence specific manner (Nicholson et al., 1990) so that mutations in the bacterial DNA do not affect the binding of SASP. Sequences of a/B-type SASP may be found in appendix 1 of WO02/40678, including SASP-C from Bacillus megaterium which is the preferred α/ß-type SASP. WO02/40678 describes the use as an antimicrobial agent of bacteriophage modified to incorporate a SASP gene.

Bacteriophage vectors modified to contain a SASP gene have generally been named SASPject vectors. Once the SASP gene has been delivered to a target bacterium, SASP is produced inside those bacteria where it binds to bacterial DNA and changes the conformation of the DNA from B-like towards A-like. Production of sufficient SASP inside target bacterial cells causes a drop in viability of affected cells.

In particularly preferred embodiments, the method of the present invention may be used to engineer a SASP expression cassette into a phage to create a SASPject vector; this technique could also be used to engineer a SASP expression cassette into a phage and simultaneously delete a lytic gene to create a SASPject vector.

Accordingly, in one arrangement according to the invention, the exogenous DNA comprises a gene encoding an α/β small acid-soluble spore protein (SASP). In this way, the method of the invention may be used to produce a modified bacteriophage capable of infecting a plurality of different target bacteria. The modified bacteriophage includes a SASP which is toxic to the target bacteria, wherein the bacteriophage is typically non-lytic.

In one aspect, the term ‘SASP’ as used in the present specification refers to a protein with α/β-type SASP activity, that is, the ability to bind to DNA and modify its structure from its B-like form towards its A-like form, and not only covers the proteins listed in appendix 1 of WO02/40678, but also any homologues thereof, as well as any other protein also having α/β-type SASP activity. In an alternative aspect, the term ‘SASP’ as used in the specification refers to any protein listed in appendix 1 of WO02/40678, or any homologue having at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 98% or 99% sequence identity with any one of the proteins listed in appendix 1 of WO02/40678. In another alternative aspect, the term ‘SASP’ as used in the specification refers to any protein listed in appendix 1 of WO02/40678.

The SASP gene may be chosen from any one of the genes encoding the SASP disclosed in Appendix 1 of WO02/40678. In a preferred arrangement the SASP is SASP-C. The SASP-C may be from Bacillus megaterium.

It is preferred that the SASP gene is under the control of a constitutive promoter which is advantageously sufficiently strong to drive production of toxic levels of SASP when the modified bacteriophage is present in multiple copies in the target bacterium. Useful constitutive promoters include pdhA for pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 component alpha sub units, rpsB for the 30S ribosomal protein S2, pgi for glucose-6-phosphate isomerase and the fructose bisphosphate aldolase gene promoter fda. Preferred regulated promoters, active during infection, are lasB for elastase. These promoters are typically from P. aeruginosa. Promoters having a sequence showing at least 90% sequence identity to these promoter sequences may also be used.

Where the method of the invention is used to provide a modified bacteriophage, this may express a plurality of different host range determinants, wherein each host range determinant has a different bacterial host specificity. Alternatively, the modified bacteriophage, may express a hybrid host range determinant protein which comprises an amino acid sequence from a plurality of different bacteriophages. Each host range determinant may be a tail fibre protein. The bacterial host specificity of the host range determinants is advantageously within the same bacterial species.

In a further aspect, there is provided a composition for inhibiting or preventing bacterial cell growth, which comprises a modified bacteriophage or mixture thereof as defined herein and a carrier therefor. Such a composition may have a wide range of uses and is therefore to be formulated according to the intended use. The composition may be formulated as a medicament, especially for human treatment and may treat various conditions, including bacterial infections. Among those infections treatable according to the present invention are localised tissue and organ infections, or multi-organ infections, including blood-stream infections, topical infections, dental carries, respiratory infections, and eye infections. The carrier may be a pharmaceutically-acceptable recipient or diluent. The exact nature and quantities of the components of such compositions may be determined empirically and will depend in part upon the routes of administration of the composition.

Routes of administration to recipients include intravenous, intra-arterial, oral, buccal, sublingual, intranasal, by inhalation, topical (including ophthalmic), intra-muscular, subcutaneous and intra-articular. For convenience of use, dosages according to the invention will depend on the site and type of infection to be treated or prevented. Respiratory infections may be treated by inhalation administration and eye infections may be treated using eye drops. Oral hygiene products containing the modified bacteriophage are also provided; a mouthwash or toothpaste may be used which contains modified bacteriophage according to the invention formulated to eliminate bacteria associated with dental plaque formation.

A modified bacteriophage produced according to the invention may be used as a bacterial decontaminant, for example in the treatment of surface bacterial contamination as well as land remediation or water treatment. The bacteriophage may be used in the treatment of medical personnel and/or patients as a decontaminating agent, for example in a handwash.

Treatment of work surfaces and equipment is also provided, especially that used in hospital procedures or in food preparation. One particular embodiment comprises a composition formulated for topical use for preventing, eliminating or reducing carriage of bacteria and contamination from one individual to another. This is important to limit the transmission of microbial infections, particularly in a hospital environment where bacteria resistant to conventional antibiotics are prevalent. For such a use the modified bacteriophage may be contained in Tris buffered saline or phosphate buffered saline or may be formulated within a gel or cream. For multiple use a preservative may be added. Alternatively the product may be lyophilised and excipients, for example a sugar such as sucrose may be added.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF TECHNIQUE

In the present invention it has been found that multiple phage can be identified which carry homologous host range determinants. Such phage can be isolated. For instance, phage can be isolated which infect Pseudomonas aeruginosa, by screening for phage from environmental sources which are able to form plaques on P. aeruginosa strains (Gill and Hyman, 2010). Isolated phage may have their whole genomes sequenced and annotated. Alternatively DNA sequence databases could be searched for host range determinants. As of September 2014, there were 1400 phage genome sequences deposited in the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database.

HRD may be tail fibre proteins, which are commonly found to be proteins responsible for the initial recognition/binding to the host bacterium, for instance in phage T4, T5 and T7 (Rakhuba et al., 2010). Alternatively other HRD may be baseplate proteins. Phage genomes may be searched for potential HRD sequences by assessing the homology of all proteins in the phage genome to known sequences, using BLAST searches. It is advantageous to identify phage tail fibre proteins which are homologous. For example several phage Phi33, PTP47, PTP92 and C36—with a broad host range for P. aeruginosa strains, have been identified and their genomes sequenced. Analysis of the genome sequences of Phi33, PTP47, PTP92 and C36 reveals that they contain genes encoding putative tail fibre proteins with a high level of sequence identity (amino acid identity in parentheses): C36 (96%), PTP47 (86%), PTP92 (83%). BLAST searches have shown that these 4 phages are related to 10 other deposited phage genome sequences which, together, form the family of PB1-like phage: PB1, SPM1, F8, LBL3, KPP12, LMA2, SN, JG024, NH-4, 14-1 (Ceyssens et al., 2009). The homology of these putative tail fibre proteins was assessed. Following a 2 sequence BLAST alignment, compared to the Phi33 tail fibre protein (amino acid identity in parentheses): LBL3 (96%), SPM-1 (95%), F8 (95%), PB1 (95%), KPP12 (94%), LMA2 (94%), SN (87%), 14-1 (86%), JG024 (83%), NH-4 (83%). An alignment of all 14 of the aforementioned phage is shown in FIG. 6A-6E.

Analysis of the annotated tail fibre protein sequences from these 14 phages reveals that the N-terminal region of the proteins—equivalent to Phi33 tail fibre amino acids 1-628—show an even higher level of sequence identity at the amino acid level than the sequence identity of these proteins over their entire length, in the range of 96-100% for all 14 proteins. Following a 2 sequence BLAST alignment, compared to the N-terminal amino acids 1-628 of the Phi33 tail fibre protein (amino acid identity in parentheses): LBL3 (96%), SPM-1 (96%), F8 (96%), PB1 (96%), KPP12 (98%), LMA2 (99%), SN (99%), 14-1 (97%), JG024 (97%), NH-4 (97%), PTP47 (98%), C36 (96%), PTP92 (97%). However, the C-terminal region of the protein—equivalent to Phi33 tail fibre amino acids 629-964—is not as conserved as the N-terminal region in some of the proteins, the range of sequence identity being typically 57-96%. Following a 2 sequence BLAST alignment, compared to the C-terminal 629-964 amino acids of the Phi33 tail fibre protein (amino acid identity in parentheses): LBL3 (94%), SPM-1 (93%), F8 (93%), PB1 (94%), KPP12 (87%), LMA2 (85%), SN (65%), 14-1 (65%), JG024 (57%), NH-4 (57%), PTP47 (64%), C36 (96%), PTP92 (57%). Analysis of phage tail fibres from other, well characterised, phage has shown that they possess an N-terminal tail base plate binding region and a C-terminal receptor binding region (Veesler and Cambillau, 2011). In experimental analysis of their bacterial strain host range, using plaque assay or growth inhibition tests, the phage Phi33, PTP47, PTP92 and C36 have overlapping but non-identical host range (Table 1). Taken together with the established evidence for the role of the C-terminal region of phage tail fibres being involved in bacterial host receptor binding, and the sequence variation in the C-terminal region of these 4 phage, and their similar but non-identical host range, it is postulated that the C-terminal variation is associated with host range in the phage assessed.

It is further provided, according to this invention, that the genes for homologous tail fibre proteins can be taken from one phage and added to another, based upon their high level of sequence identity in the N-terminal region. The N-terminal region is thought to be involved in the binding of the tail fibre to the phage tail (Veesler and Cambillau, 2011), allowing the formation of viable phage with the host range associated with donor phage's tail fibre. Alternatively hybrid tail fibre genes may be made, carrying the conserved N-terminal tail attachment region of the tail fibre from a recipient phage, together with the variable C-terminal receptor-binding region from a heterologous donor phage tail fibre protein, using tail fibres genes such as those described herein. Such tail fibre hybrid genes could be used to replace some of the tail fibres of the phage. This provides an N-terminal region of the hybrid tail fibre (from the recipient phage) and allows the formation of viable phage with the host range associated with donor phage's tail fibre C-terminal receptor-binding region. Transplantation of engineered tail fibre hybrid genes into a recipient phage has been demonstrated in the present invention. Using standard molecular genetic techniques, Phi33 has been modified to carry heterologous tail fibre hybrids from the following phage: PTP92, PTP47, LBL3, SPM-1, F8, PB1, KPP12, LMA2, SN, 14-1, NH-4. All modified phage have been shown to be viable and able to plaque on P. aeruginosa. (The nomenclature of tail fibre hybrids is as follows: As an example, a hybrid gene such that the N-terminal tail attachment region of Phi33 is hybridised with the C-terminal receptor binding region of PTP47 is Phi33(N)PTP47(C).)

Phage Phi33 and PTP92 have a similar, but non-identical, host range. Therefore it was postulated that the host range of PTP92 could be inherited by Phi33, by replacement of the tail fibre gene in Phi33 (designated ORF32) with a hybrid Phi33(N)PTP92(C) tail fibre gene. The hybrid gene was made using the DNA sequence encoding the N-terminal region of Phi33 (equivalent to amino acids 1-628) and the C-terminal region of PTP92 (equivalent to amino acids 629-962), thus creating a hybrid tail fibre gene. The rationale for using these regions to create this hybrid gene is apparent from the earlier analysis of these proteins. The N-terminal regions of both tail fibre proteins, thought to be involved in phage attachment, are 97% identical; the C-terminal regions of both tail fibre proteins, thought to be involved in host cell receptor binding, are 57% identical. The hybrid tail fibre gene was flanked with Phi33 DNA, using ˜1000 bp of sequence either side of Phi33 ORF32 (the native Phi33 tail fibre gene), and cloned into a plasmid. The plasmid was introduced into a P. aeruginosa strain susceptible to Phi33 infection and the resulting strain infected with Phi33, to produce a phage lysate. Within this lysate, recombinant phage would exist, which would carry the hybrid tail fibre rather than the Phi33 native tail fibre. The phage lysate was used to infect a strain which is able to plaque PTP92 but not Phi33. Therefore non-recombinant Phi33 phage would not be propagated on this host and would be selected against; Phi33 plaques carrying a recombinant Phi33-PTP92 hybrid tail fibre gene would be able to propagate and would be selected. Plaques were isolated and screened by PCR to assess their genotype. All of the plaques tested were found to carry the N-terminal region from Phi33 and the C-terminal region from PTP92, and thus the host range of PTP92 was transferred to Phi33.

Phi33 has been similarly modified to carry tail fibre hybrids (carrying the Phi33 N-terminal region) from the following phage: PTP92, PTP47, LBL3, SPM-1, F8, PB1, KPP12, LMA2, SN, 14-1, NH-4. All modified phage have been shown to be viable and able to plaque on P. aeruginosa.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

This invention will now be described in further detail, by way of example only, and with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1A-1B is a schematic diagram showing construction of plasmids containing lacZΔM15 and an endolysin gene;

FIG. 2A-2D is a schematic diagram showing construction of plasmids with replaced tail fibre sections, for the genetic modification of phage to add SASP-C, or SASP-C in addition to a lacZα marker;

FIG. 3A-3B is a schematic diagram showing production of phage in which SASP-C, or SASP-C in addition to a lacZα marker, have been added to the phage, by recombination, using HORDS as a means of selecting for recombinant phage;

FIG. 4A-4D is a schematic diagram showing construction of plasmids with replaced tail fibre sections, for the genetic modification of phage to replace the endolysin gene by SASP-C, or by SASP-C and lacZα marker;

FIG. 5A-5B is a schematic diagram showing production of phage in which the endolysin gene has been deleted and replaced by SASP-C, or by SASP-C and a lacZα marker, by recombination, using HORDS as a means of selecting for recombinant phage; and

FIG. 6A-6E shows multiple sequence alignment of the tail fibre genes of related phages. CLUSTAL 2.1 multiple sequence alignment of the tail fibre genes from Phage SPM-1, F8, PB1, C36, LBL3, Phi33, LMA2, KPP12, JG024, PTP92, NH-4, 14-1, PTP47, SN are shown. Sequence divergent C-terminal region are shaded in grey, and the sequence conserved N-terminal region is unshaded.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The following examples are given to show the utility of the HORDS technique in adding exogenous DNA to an obligately lytic phage.

As an example, a DNA region comprising the tail fibre gene, or section of a tail fibre gene, from an alternative phage, and the SASP-C gene from Bacillus megaterium controlled by a Pseudomonas aeruginosa fda promoter, may be cloned between two regions of Phi33 DNA that flank the native tail fibre region, or section thereof, in a broad host range E. coli/P. aeruginosa vector. This plasmid may be introduced into P. aeruginosa, and the resulting strain infected with Phi33. Following harvesting of progeny phage, double recombinant bacteriophage in which the native Phi33 tail fibre, or tail fibre section, has been replaced by the new tail fibre or tail fibre section, and to which the fda-SASP-C region of DNA has been introduced, may be isolated by plaquing on a suitable P. aeruginosa strain that is a host for the new, recombinant bacteriophage, but is not a host for Phi33.

As another example, for the construction of a Phi33 derivative in which two, unrelated sections of foreign DNA has been introduced into the genome, it is shown here as an example only, how the existing tail fibre, or section thereof, may be replaced by an alternative tail fibre or tail fibre section from a different bacteriophage, while simultaneously adding a SASP-C gene from Bacillus megaterium under the control of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa fda promoter, alongside a lacZα marker from Escherichia coli, via homologous recombination. A DNA region comprising the tail fibre gene, or section of a tail fibre gene, from an alternative phage, the SASP-C gene from Bacillus megaterium controlled by a Pseudomonas aeruginosa fda promoter, and an Escherichia coli lacZα reporter gene, may be cloned between two regions of Phi33 DNA that flank the native tail fibre region, or section thereof, in a broad host range E. coli/P. aeruginosa vector. This plasmid may be introduced into P. aeruginosa, and the resulting strain infected with Phi33. Following harvesting of progeny phage, double recombinant bacteriophage in which the native Phi33 tail fibre, or tail fibre section, has been replaced by the new tail fibre or tail fibre section, and to which the fda-SASP-C and lacZα regions have been introduced, may be isolated by plaquing on a suitable P. aeruginosa strain that is a host for the new, recombinant bacteriophage, but is not a host for Phi33. If visualisation of the lacZα marker is required, the Pseudomonas aeruginosa host strain used should carry the Escherichia coli lacZΔM15 allele at a suitable location in the host strain genome.

As another example, for construction of a Phi33 derivative in which a region of the bacteriophage genome is deleted, while simultaneously introducing a section of foreign DNA into the genome, it is shown here as an example only, how the existing tail fibre, or section thereof, may be replaced by an alternative tail fibre or tail fibre section from a different bacteriophage, while simultaneously deleting the native endolysin gene to render the phage non-lytic, and also simultaneously introducing a SASP-C gene from Bacillus megaterium under the control of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa fda promoter, via homologous recombination. Successful recombinants may be identified by selection of bacteriophage that plaque on a P. aeruginosa strain that is a host for the recombinant phage that carry the new host range determinant, but which is not a host for the original native phage, and which has also been modified such that the Phi33 endolysin gene is present on the P. aeruginosa genome.

A DNA region comprising the tail fibre gene, or section of a tail fibre gene, from an alternative phage, and the SASP-C gene from Bacillus megaterium controlled by a Pseudomonas aeruginosa fda promoter, may be cloned between two regions of Phi33 DNA that flank the native tail fibre region and endolysin region, or section thereof, in a broad host range E. coli/P. aeruginosa vector. This plasmid may be introduced into P. aeruginosa, and the resulting strain infected with Phi33. Following harvesting of progeny phage, double recombinant bacteriophage in which the native Phi33 tail fibre, or tail fibre section, has been replaced by the new tail fibre or tail fibre section, and to which the fda-SASP-C region of DNA has been introduced, and from which the native endolysin gene has been deleted, may be isolated by plaquing on a suitable P. aeruginosa (endolysin⁺) strain that is a host for the new, recombinant bacteriophage, but is not a host for Phi33.

In order to generate a non-lytic version of a lytic bacteriophage by this method, a suitable Pseudomonas aeruginosa host strain is required that is a host for the recombinant bacteriophage that carries the new host range determinant, but that is not a host for the native bacteriophage, but in addition, carries the bacteriophage endolysin gene at a suitable location in the Pseudomonas aeruginosa genome. Similarly, if visualisation of a bacteriophage-bourne lacZα reporter is required, a Pseudomonas aeruginosa host strain is required that is a host for the recombinant bacteriophage that carries the new host range determinant, but that is not a host for the native bacteriophage, but in addition, carries the Escherichia coli lacZΔM15 allele at a suitable location. The genomic location for insertion of transgenes such as these should be chosen such that no essential genes are affected and no unwanted phenotypes are generated as a result of polar effects on the expression of adjacent genes. As an example, one such a location could include immediately downstream of the phoA gene of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

As an example, the Phi33 endolysin gene may be cloned into an E. coli vector that is unable to replicate in P. aeruginosa, between two regions of P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 genomic DNA that flank the 3′ end of phoA. This plasmid may be introduced into P. aeruginosa and isolates having undergone a single homologous recombination to integrate the whole plasmid into the genome selected according to the acquisition of tetracycline (50 μg/ml) resistance. Isolates (endolysin⁺, lacZΔM15⁺) which have undergone a second homologous recombination event may then be isolated on medium containing 10% sucrose (utilising the sacB counter-selectable marker present on the plasmid backbone).

As an example, the Escherichia coli lacZΔM15 allele may be cloned into an E. coli vector that is unable to replicate in P. aeruginosa, between two regions of P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 genomic DNA that flank the 3′ end of phoA. This plasmid may be introduced into P. aeruginosa and isolates having undergone a single homologous recombination to integrate the whole plasmid into the genome selected according to the acquisition of tetracycline (50 μg/ml) resistance. Isolates (endolysin⁺, lacZΔM15⁺) which have undergone a second homologous recombination event may then be isolated on medium containing 10% sucrose (utilising the sacB counter-selectable marker present on the plasmid backbone).

Experimental Procedures

PCR reactions to generate DNA for cloning purposes may be carried out using Herculase II Fusion DNA polymerase (Agilent Technologies), depending upon the melting temperatures (T_(m)) of the primers, according to manufacturers instructions. PCR reactions for screening purposes may be carried out using Taq DNA polymerase (NEB), depending upon the T_(m) of the primers, according to manufacturers instructions. Unless otherwise stated, general molecular biology techniques, such as restriction enzyme digestion, agarose gel electrophoresis, T4 DNA ligase-dependent ligations, competent cell preparation and transformation may be based upon methods described in Sambrook et al., (1989). Enzymes may be purchased from New England Biolabs or Thermo Scientific. DNA may be purified from enzyme reactions and prepared from cells using Qiagen DNA purification kits. Plasmids may be transferred from E. coli strains to P. aeruginosa strains by conjugation, mediated by the conjugation helper strain E. coli HB101 (pRK2013). A chromogenic substrate for (3-galactosidase, S-gal, that upon digestion by β-galactosidase forms a black precipitate when chelated with ferric iron, may be purchased from Sigma (S9811).

Primers may be obtained from Sigma Life Science. Where primers include recognition sequences for restriction enzymes, additional 2-6 nucleotides may be added at the 5′ end to ensure digestion of the PCR-amplified DNA.

All clonings, unless otherwise stated, may be achieved by ligating DNAs overnight with T4 DNA ligase and then transforming them into E. coli cloning strains, such as DH5α or TOP10, with isolation on selective medium, as described elsewhere (Sambrook et al., 1989).

An E. coli/P. aeruginosa broad host range vector, such as pSM1080, may be used to transfer genes between E. coli and P. aeruginosa. pSM1080 was previously produced by combining a broad host-range origin of replication to allow replication in P. aeruginosa, oriT from pRK2, the tetAR selectable marker for use in both E. coli and P. aeruginosa, from plasmid pRK415, and the high-copy-number, E. coli origin of replication, oriV, from plasmid pUC19.

An E. coli vector that is unable to replicate in P. aeruginosa, pSM1104, may be used to generate P. aeruginosa mutants by allelic exchange. pSM1104 was previously produced by combining oriT from pRK2, the tetAR selectable marker for use in both E. coli and P. aeruginosa, from plasmid pRK415, the high-copy-number, E. coli origin of replication, oriV, from plasmid pUC19, and the sacB gene from Bacillus subtilis strain 168, under the control of a strong promoter, for use as a counter-selectable marker.

Construction of Plasmids to Generate Pseudomonas aeruginosa Strains Carrying Either the Phi33 Endolysin Gene, or the Escherichia coli lacZΔM15 Gene, Immediately Downstream of the phoA Locus of the Bacterial Genome

1. Plasmid pSMX301 (FIG. 1A-1B), comprising pSM1104 carrying DNA flanking the 3′ end of the P. aeruginosa PAO1 phoA homologue, may be constructed as follows.

A region comprising the terminal approximately 1 kb of the phoA gene from P. aeruginosa may be amplified by PCR using primers B4300 and B4301 (FIG. 1A-1B). The PCR product may then be cleaned and digested with SpeI and BglII. A second region comprising approximately 1 kb downstream of the phoA gene from P. aeruginosa may be amplified by PCR using primers B4302 and B4303 (FIG. 1A-1B). This second PCR product may then be cleaned and digested with BglII and XhoI. The two digests may be cleaned again and ligated to pSM1104 that has been digested with SpeI and XhoI, in a 3-way ligation, to yield plasmid pSMX301 (FIG. 1A-1B).

Primer B4300 consists of a 5′ SpeI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence located approximately 1 kb upstream of the stop codon of phoA from P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 (FIG. 1A-1B). Primer B4301 consists of 5′ BglII and AflII restriction sites (underlined), followed by sequence complementary to the end of the phoA gene from P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 (the stop codon is in lower case; FIG. 1A-1B). Primer B4302 consists of 5′ BglII and NheI restriction sites (underlined), followed by sequence immediately downstream of the stop codon of the phoA gene from P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 (FIG. 1A-1B). Primer B4303 consists of a 5′ XhoI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence that is complementary to sequence approximately 1 kb downstream of the phoA gene from P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 (FIG. 1A-1B).

Primer B4300 (SEQ ID NO: 1) 5′-GATAACTAGTCCTGGTCCACCGGGGTCAAG-3′ Primer B4301 (SEQ ID NO: 2) 5′-GCTCAGATCTTCCTTAAGtcaGTCGCGCAGGTTCAG-3′ Primer B4302 (SEQ ID NO: 3) 5′-AGGAAGATCTGAGCTAGCTCGGACCAGAACGAAAAAG-3′ Primer B4303 (SEQ ID NO: 4) 5′-GATACTCGAGGCGGATGAACATTGAGGTG-3′

2. Plasmid pSMX302 (FIG. 1A-1B), comprising pSMX301 carrying the endolysin gene from Phi33, under the control of an endolysin gene promoter, may be constructed as follows.

The endolysin gene promoter may be amplified by PCR from Phi33 using primers B4304 and B4305 (FIG. 1A-1B). The endolysin gene itself may be amplified by PCR from Phi33 using primers B4306 and B4307 (FIG. 1A-1B). The two PCR products may then be joined together by Splicing by Overlap Extension (SOEing) PCR, using the two outer primers, B4304 and B4307. The resulting PCR product may then be digested with AflII and BglII, and ligated to pSMX301 that has also been digested with AflII and BglII, to yield plasmid pSMX302 (FIG. 1A-1B).

Primer B4304 consists of a 5′ AflII restriction site (underlined), followed by a bi-directional transcriptional terminator (soxR terminator, 60-96 bases of Genbank accession number DQ058714), and sequence of the beginning of the endolysin promoter region (underlined, in bold) (FIG. 1A-1B). Primer B4305 consists of a 5′ region of sequence that is complementary to the region overlapping the start codon of the endolysin gene from Phi33, followed by sequence that is complementary to the end of the endolysin promoter region (underlined, in bold; FIG. 1A-1B). Primer B4306 is the reverse complement of primer B4305 (see also FIG. 1A-1B). Primer B4307 consists of a 5′ BglII restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence complementary to the end of the Phi33 endolysin gene (FIG. 1A-1B).

Primer B4304 (SEQ ID NO: 5) 5′-GATACTTAAGAAAACAAACTAAAGCGCCCTTGTGGCGCTTTAGTTTT ATAC TACTGAGAAAAATCTGGATTC -3′ Primer B4305 (SEQ ID NO: 6) 5′-GATTTTCATCAATACTCCTGGATCC CGTTAATTCGAAGAGTCG -3′ Primer B4306 (SEQ ID NO: 7) 5′- CGACTCTTCGAATTAACG GGATCCAGGAGTATTGATG AAAATC-3′ Primer B4307 (SEQ ID NO: 8) 5′-GATAAGATCTTCAGGAGCCTTGATTGATC-3′

3. Plasmid pSMX303, comprising pSMX301 carrying lacZΔM15 under the control of a Lac promoter, may be constructed as follows.

The lacZΔM15 gene under the control of a lac promoter may be amplified by PCR from Escherichia coli strain DH10B using primers B4308 and B4309 (FIG. 1A-1B). The resulting PCR product may then be digested with BglII and NheI, and ligated to pSMX301 that has also been digested with BglII and NheI, to yield plasmid pSMX303 (FIG. 1A-1B).

Primer B4308 consists of a 5′ BglII restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence of the lac promoter (FIG. 1A-1B). Primer B4309 consists of a 5′ NheI restriction site (underlined), followed by a bi-directional transcriptional terminator and sequence complementary to the 3′ end of lacZΔM15 (underlined, in bold; FIG. 1A-1B).

Primer B4308 (SEQ ID NO: 9) 5′-GATAAGATCTGAGCGCAACGCAATTAATGTG-3′ Primer B4309 (SEQ ID NO: 10) 5′-GATAGCTAGCAGTCAAAAGCCTCCGGTCGGAGGCTTTTGACT TTATT TTTGACACCAGACCAAC -3′

Genetic Modification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to Introduce the Phi33 Endolysin Gene Immediately Downstream of the phoA Locus of the Bacterial Genome

1. Plasmid pSMX302 (FIG. 1A-1B) may be transferred to a suitable P. aeruginosa strain that is a host for bacteriophage carrying the new host range determinant, but which is not a host for the original bacteriophage, by conjugation, selecting for primary recombinants by acquisition of resistance to tetracycline (50 μg/ml).

2. Double recombinants may then be selected via sacB-mediated counter-selection, by plating onto medium containing 10% sucrose.

3. Isolates growing on 10% sucrose may then be screened by PCR to confirm that the Phi33 endolysin gene has been introduced downstream of the P. aeruginosa phoA gene.

4. Following verification of an isolate (PAX31), this strain may then be used as a host for further modification of bacteriophage, where complementation of an endolysin mutation is required.

Genetic Modification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to Introduce the Escherichia coli lacZΔM15 Allele Immediately Downstream of the phoA Locus of the Bacterial Genome

1. Plasmid pSMX303 (FIG. 1A-1B) may be transferred to a suitable P. aeruginosa strain that is a host for bacteriophage carrying the new host range determinant, but which is not a host for the original bacteriophage, by conjugation, selecting for primary recombinants by acquisition of resistance to tetracycline (50 μg/ml).

2. Double recombinants may then be selected via sacB-mediated counter-selection, by plating onto medium containing 10% sucrose.

3. Isolates growing on 10% sucrose may then be screened by PCR to confirm that the Escherichia coli lacZΔM15 allele has been introduced downstream of the P. aeruginosa phoA gene.

4. Following verification of an isolate (PAX32), this strain may then be used as a bacteriophage host, when complementation of a lacZα reporter is desired.

Construction of a Plasmid to Introduce a New Section of DNA (Fda-SASP-C) into the Genome of Bacteriophage Phi33, Utilising an Alternative Host Range Determinant as a Selectable Marker.

1. Plasmid pSMX304 (FIG. 2A-2D), comprising pSM1080 carrying Phi33 sequences flanking sequences of the tail fibre host range determinant of the related bacteriophage PTP92, may be constructed as follows.

The region immediately downstream of the Phi33 tail fibre may be amplified by PCR using primers B4333 and B4334 (FIG. 2A-2D). The region encoding the C-terminal, receptor-binding region of the tail fibre of bacteriophage PTP92 may be amplified by PCR using primers B4335 and B4336 (FIG. 2A-2D). These two PCR products may then be joined by SOEing PCR using the outer primers B4333 and B4336. The region encoding the Phi33 tail fibre N-terminal region, and the region immediately upstream of the Phi33 tail fibre, may be amplified by PCR using primers B4337 and B4338 (FIG. 2A-2D). This Phi33 tail fibre region may then be joined to the PCR product comprising the region downstream of the Phi33 tail fibre and the PTP92 host range determinant, by SOEing PCR using the outer primers B4333 and B4338. The resulting PCR product may then be cleaned, digested with NheI, cleaned again and then ligated to pSM1080 that has been digested with NheI, treated with alkaline phosphatase and cleaned, prior to ligation. This construction yields plasmid pSMX304 (FIG. 2A-2D).

Primer B4333 consists of 5′ NheI-AflII-PacI restriction sites (underlined) followed by sequence complementary to a region approximately 1 kb downstream of the Phi33 tail fibre (FIG. 2A-2D). Primer B4334 consists of 5′ sequence of the end of the region encoding the C-terminal, receptor binding region of the PTP92 tail fibre, followed by sequence immediately downstream of the Phi33 tail fibre (underlined; FIG. 2A-2D). Primer B4335 is the reverse complement of primer B4334. Primer B4336 consists of 5′ sequence complementary to a region that encodes part of the C-terminal, receptor binding region of the PTP92 tail fibre, followed by sequence complementary to the Phi33 tail fibre (underlined; FIG. 2A-2D). Primer B4337 is the reverse complement of primer B4336 (FIG. 2A-2D). Primer B4338 consists of a 5′ NheI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence of a region upstream of the Phi33 tail fibre (FIG. 2A-2D).

Primer B4333 (SEQ ID NO: 11) 5′-GATAGCTAGCGACTTAAGGATTAATTAATCAGGAGCCTTGATTGAT C-3′ Primer B4334 (SEQ ID NO: 12) 5′-CTATTCCAGCGGGTAACGTAAAATGAAATGGACGCGGATCAG-3′ Primer B4335 (SEQ ID NO: 13) 5′-CTGATCCGCGTCCATTTCATTTTACGTTACCCGCTGGAATAG-3′ Primer B4336 (SEQ ID NO: 14) 5′-CTCAAGCGGGCCGGCTGGTCTCTCGGCAATAACTCCTATGTGATCAC C-3′ Primer B4337 (SEQ ID NO: 15) 5′-GGTGATCACATAGGAGTTATTGCCGAGAGACCAGCCGGCCCGCTTGA G-3′ Primer B4338 (SEQ ID NO: 16) 5′-GATAGCTAGCGGAGTACCGCTTACGTCTC-3′

2. Plasmid pSMX305 (FIG. 2A-2D), comprising pSMX304 carrying a region of Phi33 DNA immediately downstream of the endolysin gene, the location chosen here for insertion of the fda-SASP-C foreign DNA, may be constructed as follows.

An approximately 1 kb region of Phi33 DNA located immediately downstream of the endolysin gene, the location chosen for insertion of the fda-SASP-C foreign DNA, may be amplified by PCR using primers B4339 and B4340 (FIG. 2A-2D). The resulting PCR product may then be digested with AflII and PacI, cleaned, and ligated to pSMX304 that has also been digested with AflII and PacI and cleaned, prior to ligation, yielding plasmid pSMX305 (FIG. 2A-2D).

Primer B4339 consists of a 5′ AflII restriction site (underlined), followed by Phi33 sequence approximately 1 kb downstream of the location chosen here for insertion of the fda-SASP-C DNA (FIG. 2A-2D). Primer B4340 consists of 5′ PacI-KpnI-SacI restriction sites (underlined), followed by sequence complementary to Phi33 sequence located immediately downstream of the location chosen for insertion of the fda-SASP-C DNA (FIG. 2A-2D).

Primer B4339 (SEQ ID NO: 17) 5′-GATACTTAAGTCGCTCCAGCCATGCGGAAAAC-3′ Primer B4340 (SEQ ID NO: 18) 5′-GATATTAATTAATCGGTACCTCGAGCTCTATTCGCCCAAAAGAAAA G-3′

3. Plasmid pSMX306 (FIG. 2A-2D), comprising pSMX305 carrying fda-SASP-C, may be constructed as follows.

The SASP-C gene from Bacillus megaterium strain KM (ATCC 13632) may be amplified by PCR using primers B4341 and B4342 (FIG. 2A-2D). The resulting PCR product may then be cleaned, digested with KpnI and NcoI, and cleaned again. The Pseudomonas aeruginosa fda promoter may be amplified by PCR using primers B4343 and B4344 (FIG. 2A-2D). The resulting PCR product may then be cleaned, digested with NcoI and PacI, and cleaned again. The two PCR products may then be ligated, in a 3-way ligation, to pSMX305 that has been digested with KpnI and PacI and cleaned prior to ligation, to yield plasmid pSMX306 (FIG. 2A-2D).

Primer B4341 consists of a 5′ KpnI restriction site (underlined), followed by a bi-directional transcription terminator (tonB terminator), followed by sequence complementary to the end of SASP-C from Bacillus megaterium strain KM (ATCC 13632) (underlined, in bold; FIG. 2A-2D). Primer B4342 (FIG. 2A-2D) consists of a 5′ NcoI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence of the beginning of the SASP-C gene from Bacillus megaterium strain KM (ATCC 13632). Primer B4343 consists of a 5′ NcoI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence of the fda promoter (FIG. 2A-2D). Primer B4344 consists of a 5′ PacI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence complementary to the fda promoter (FIG. 2A-2D).

B4341 (SEQ ID NO: 19) 5′-GATAGGTACCAGTCAAAAGCCTCCGACCGGAGGCTTTTGACT TTAGT ACTTGCCGCCTAG -3′ B4342 (SEQ ID NO: 20) 5′-GATACCATGGCAAATTATCAAAACGCATC-3′ B4343 (SEQ ID NO: 21) 5′-GATACCATGGTTCTCGTATCTCCCAATC-3′ B4344 (SEQ ID NO: 22) 5′-GATATTAATTAACGACGAAGGCCTGGTG-3′

Genetic Modification of Phi33 to Add Fda-SASP-C to the Bacteriophage Genome, the PTP92 Host Range Determinant as a Means of Selection

1. Plasmid pSMX306 (FIG. 2A-2D) may be introduced into a P. aeruginosa strain that is a host for both the original, and the host range determinant donor phage, by conjugation, selecting transconjugants on the basis of tetracycline resistance (50 μg/ml), yielding strain PTA31.

2. Strain PTA31 may be infected with phage Phi33, and the progeny phage harvested.

3. Recombinant phage, in which the PTP92 host range determinant has been transferred to Phi33, may be identified by plaquing the lysate from step (2) on P. aeruginosa strain 2726, which is a host for the recombinant phage that carries the PTP92 host range determinant, but which is not a host for the parental bacteriophage Phi33.

4. A PCR screen may be further carried out to identify isolates that have simultaneously acquired fda-SASP-C, in addition to the host range determinant from PTP92.

5. Following identification of a verified isolate (PTPX31; FIG. 2A-2D; FIG. 3A-3B), this isolate may be plaque purified twice more, prior to further use.

Construction of a Plasmid to Introduce Two New Sections of DNA (Fda-SASP-C and lacZα) into the Genome of Bacteriophage Phi33, Utilising an Alternative Host Range Determinant as a Selectable Marker.

1. Plasmid pSMX307 (FIG. 2A-2D), comprising pSMX306 carrying the lacZα reporter from plasmid pUC19, may be constructed as follows.

The lacZα reporter may be amplified by PCR from pUC19 using primers B4345 and B4346 (FIG. 2A-2D). The resulting PCR product may then be cleaned, digested with SacI and KpnI, cleaned again, and ligated to pSMX306 that has been digested with SacI and KpnI and cleaned prior to ligation, to yield plasmid pSMX307 (FIG. 2A-2D).

Primer B4345 consists of a 5′ SacI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence complementary to the 3′ end of lacZα (FIG. 2A-2D). Primer B4346 consists of a 5′ KpnI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence of the lac promoter (FIG. 2A-2D).

Primer B4345 (SEQ ID NO: 23) 5′-GATAGAGCTCTTAGCGCCATTCGCCATTC-3′ Primer B4346 (SEQ ID NO: 24) 5′-GATAGGTACCGCGCAACGCAATTAATGTG-3′

Genetic Modification of Phi33 to Add Fda-SASP-C and lacZα to the Bacteriophage Genome, Utilising the PTP92 Host Range Determinant as a Means of Selection

1. Plasmid pSMX307 (FIG. 2A-2D; FIG. 3A-3B) may be introduced into a P. aeruginosa strain that is a host for both the original, and the host range determinant donor phage, by conjugation, selecting transconjugants on the basis of tetracycline resistance (50 μg/ml), yielding strain PTA32.

2. Strain PTA32 may be infected with phage Phi33, and the progeny phage harvested.

3. Recombinant phage, in which the PTP92 host range determinant has been transferred to Phi33, may be identified by plaquing the lysate from step (2) on P. aeruginosa strain 2726, which is a host for the recombinant phage that carries the PTP92 host range determinant, but which is not a host for the parental bacteriophage Phi33.

4. A PCR screen may be further carried out to identify isolates that have simultaneously acquired fda-SASP-C and lacZα, in addition to the host range determinant from PTP92.

5. Isolates that have acquired lacZα may further be confirmed by plaquing on Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain PAX32 (FIG. 1A-1B), using culture medium containing the chromogenic substrate for β-galactosidase, S-Gal (Sigma). Bacteriophage which carry the lacZα reporter generate black plaques on this host, using this culture medium, while plaques of bacteriophage lacking the lacZα reporter remain clear.

6. Following identification of a verified isolate (PTPX32; FIG. 3A-3B), this isolate may be plaque purified twice more on, prior to further use.

Construction of a Plasmid to Simultaneously Delete a Section of Bacteriophage Phi33 (the Endolysin Gene) and Introduce a New Section of DNA (Fda-SASP-C) into the Genome of Bacteriophage Phi33, Utilising an Alternative Host Range Determinant as a Selectable Marker.

1. Plasmid pSMX308 (FIG. 4A-4D), comprising pSM1080 carrying Phi33 sequences flanking sequences of the tail fibre host range determinant of the related bacteriophage PTP92, but including a deletion of the endolysin gene, may be constructed as follows.

The region immediately downstream of the Phi33 tail fibre may be amplified by PCR using primers B4347 and B4334 (FIG. 4A-4D). The region encoding the C-terminal, receptor-binding region of bacteriophage PTP92 may be amplified by PCR using primers B4335 and B4336 (FIG. 4A-4D). These two PCR products may then be joined by SOEing PCR using the outer primers B4347 and B4336. The Phi33 sequence that encodes the N-terminal region of the Phi33 tail fibre, and the tail fibre upstream sequence may be amplified from Phi33 by PCR using primers B4337 and B4338. This Phi33 tail fibre region may then be joined to the PCR product comprising the region downstream of the Phi33 tail fibre and the PTP92 host range determinant, by SOEing PCR using the outer primers B4347 and B4338. The resulting PCR product may then be cleaned, digested with NheI, cleaned again and then ligated to pSM1080 that has been digested with NheI, treated with alkaline phosphatase and cleaned, prior to ligation. This construction yields plasmid pSMX308 (FIG. 4A-4D).

Primer B4347 consists of 5′ NheI-AflII-PacI restriction sites (underlined) followed by sequence complementary to a region approximately 1 kb downstream of the Phi33 tail fibre (FIG. 4A-4D). Primer B4334 consists of 5′ sequence of the PTP92 host range determinant, followed by sequence immediately downstream of the Phi33 tail fibre (underlined; FIG. 4A-4D). Primer B4335 is the reverse complement of primer B4334 (FIG. 4A-4D). Primer B4336 consists of 5′ sequence complementary to the PTP92 host range determinant, followed by sequence complementary to the Phi33 tail fibre (underlined; FIG. 4A-4D). Primer B4337 is the reverse complement of primer B4336 (FIG. 4A-4D). Primer B4338 consists of a 5′ NheI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence of a region upstream of the Phi33 tail fibre (FIG. 4A-4D).

Primer B4347 (SEQ ID NO: 25) 5′-GATAGCTAGCGACTTAAGGATTAATTAATCAATACTCCTGATTTTT G-3′ Primer B4334 (SEQ ID NO: 12) 5′-CTATTCCAGCGGGTAACGTAAAATGAAATGGACGCGGATCAG-3′ Primer B4335 (SEQ ID NO: 13) 5′-CTGATCCGCGTCCATTTCATTTTACGTTACCCGCTGGAATAG-3′ Primer B4336 (SEQ ID NO: 14) 5′-CTCAAGCGGGCCGGCTGGTCTCTCGGCAATAACTCCTATGTGATCAC C-3′ Primer B4337 (SEQ ID NO: 15) 5′-GGTGATCACATAGGAGTTATTGCCGAGAGACCAGCCGGCCCGCTTGA G-3′ Primer B4338 (SEQ ID NO: 16) 5′-GATAGCTAGCGGAGTACCGCTTACGTCTC-3′

2. Plasmid pSMX309 (FIG. 4A-4D), comprising pSMX308 carrying a region of Phi33 DNA immediately downstream of the endolysin gene, which is the location chosen here for insertion of the fda-SASP-C foreign DNA, may be constructed as follows.

An approximately 1 kb region of Phi33 DNA located immediately downstream of the endolysin gene, the location chosen here for insertion of the fda-SASP-C foreign DNA, may be amplified by PCR using primers B4339 and B4340 (FIG. 4A-4D). The resulting PCR product may then be digested with AflII and PacI, cleaned, and ligated to pSMX308 that has also been digested with AflII and PacI and cleaned, prior to ligation, yielding plasmid pSMX309 (FIG. 4A-4D).

Primer B4339 consists of a 5′ AflII restriction site (underlined), followed by Phi33 sequence approximately 1 kb downstream of the endolysin gene, the location chosen here for insertion of the fda-SASP-C DNA (FIG. 4A-4D). Primer B4340 consists of 5′ PacI-KpnI-SacI restriction sites (underlined), followed by sequence complementary to Phi33 sequence located immediately downstream of the endolysin gene, the location chosen here for insertion of the fda-SASP-C DNA (FIG. 4A-4D).

Primer B4339 (SEQ ID NO: 17) 5′-GATACTTAAGTCGCTCCAGCCATGCGGAAAAC-3′ Primer B4340 (SEQ ID NO: 18) 5′-GATATTAATTAATCGGTACCTCGAGCTCTATTCGCCCAAAAGAAAA G-3′

3. Plasmid pSMX310 (FIG. 4A-4D), comprising pSMX309 carrying fda-SASP-C, may be constructed as follows.

The SASP-C gene from Bacillus megaterium strain KM (ATCC 13632) may be amplified by PCR using primers B4341 and B4342 (FIG. 4A-4D). The resulting PCR product may then be cleaned, digested with KpnI and NcoI, and cleaned again. The Pseudomonas aeruginosa fda promoter may be amplified by PCR using primers B4343 and B4344 (FIG. 4A-4D). The resulting PCR product may then be cleaned, digested with NcoI and Pact, and cleaned again. The two PCR products may then be ligated, in a 3-way ligation, to pSMX309 that has been digested with KpnI and Pact and cleaned prior to ligation, to yield plasmid pSMX310 (FIG. 4A-4D).

Primer B4341 consists of a 5′ KpnI restriction site (underlined), followed by a bi-directional transcription terminator (tonB terminator), followed by sequence complementary to the end of SASP-C from Bacillus megaterium strain KM (ATCC 13632) (underlined, in bold; FIG. 4A-4D). Primer B4342 (FIG. 4A-4D) consists of a 5′ NcoI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence of the beginning of the SASP-C gene from Bacillus megaterium strain KM (ATCC 13632). Primer B4343 consists of a 5′ NcoI restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence of the fda promoter (FIG. 4A-4D). Primer B4344 consists of a 5′ Pact restriction site (underlined), followed by sequence complementary to the fda promoter (FIG. 4A-4D).

B4341 (SEQ ID NO: 19) 5′-GATAGGTACCAGTCAAAAGCCTCCGACCGGAGGCTTTTGACT TTAGT ACTTGCCGCCTAG -3′ B4342 (SEQ ID NO: 20) 5′-GATACCATGGCAAATTATCAAAACGCATC-3′ B4343 (SEQ ID NO: 21) 5′-GATACCATGGTTCTCGTATCTCCCAATC-3′ B4344 (SEQ ID NO: 22) 5′-GATATTAATTAACGACGAAGGCCTGGTG-3′

Genetic Modification of Phi33 to Simultaneously Delete the Phi33 Endolysin Gene, and Add Fda-SASP-C to the Bacteriophage Genome, Utilising the PTP92 Host Range Determinant as a Means of Selection

1. Plasmid pSMX310 (FIG. 4A-4D) may be introduced into a P. aeruginosa strain that is a host for both the original, and the host range determinant donor phage, by conjugation, selecting transconjugants on the basis of tetracycline resistance (50 μg/ml), yielding strain PTA33.

2. Strain PTA33 may be infected with phage Phi33, and the progeny phage harvested.

3. Recombinant phage, in which the PTP92 host range determinant has been transferred to Phi33, may be identified by plaquing the lysate from step (2) on P. aeruginosa strain PAX31 (endolysin+; FIG. 1A-1B), i.e. a strain 2726 derivative, which is a host for the recombinant phage that carries the PTP92 host range determinant, but which is not a host for the parental bacteriophage Phi33, and which carries the Phi33 endolysin gene in trans.

4. A PCR screen may be further carried out to identify isolates that have simultaneously acquired fda-SASP-C, in addition to the host range determinant from PTP92.

5. Isolates may further be tested for the endolysin deletion by plaquing on unmodified P. aeruginosa strain 2726 (endolysin), as phage isolates from which the endolysin has been successfully removed will fail to plaque on this strain.

5. Following identification of a verified isolate (PTPX33; FIG. 5A-5B), this isolate may be plaque purified twice more on an endolysin⁺ P. aeruginosa strain, prior to further use.

TABLE 1 Host range of Phi33, PTP92, C36 and PTP47 against 44 European clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bacterial Strain no. Phi33 PTP47 PTP92 C36 2019 + + − + 2020 + + − + 2021 + + + + 2029 + + − + 2031 + + + + 2039 + + + + 2040 + + − + 2041 + + + + 2042 + + + + 2045 − − + − 2046 + + + + 2047 + + + + 2048 + + + + 2049 + + + + 2050 + + + + 2051 + + − − 2052 − − − − 2053 + + − + 2054 − + − + 2055 + + − + 2056 + + + + 2057 + + + + 2058 + + + + 2483 − − + − 2484 + + − + 2705 + + − + 2706 + + − + 2707 + + + + 2708 + + + + 2709 + + + + 2710 − + + − 2711 + + + + 2712 + + − + 2713 − + + + 2714 + + + + 2715 + + + + 2716 + + − − 2717 − + + + 2718 − + + + 2719 + + − + 2720 + + + + 2721 + + + + 2722 + + + + 2723 + + − + Strains were tested for sensitivity to each phage by dropping 10 μl of crude phage lysate onto a soft agar overlay plate inoculated with bacteria. Plates were grown overnight at 32° C. and the strains were scored for sensitivity to each phage by assessing clearance zones at the point of inoculation. Where phage inhibited growth, as seen by clearance of the bacterial lawn, the strain was marked as sensitive (+), and where no inhibition of growth was seen, the strain was marked as not-sensitive (−)

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The invention claimed is:
 1. A method for modifying the genome of a lytic target phage, wherein the target phage genome includes a first target sequence and a second target sequence, which method comprises: (a) providing a vector which contains a phage-targeting region comprising a host range determinant of a marker phage, different from the host range determinant of the target phage, wherein the phage-targeting region is flanked by first and second flanking sequences homologous to the first and second target sequences of the target phage genome, and wherein the phage-targeting region of the vector further comprises an exogenous DNA sequence for incorporation into the genome of the target phage; (b) introducing the vector into a first host cell, which host cell is a host for the target phage; (c) infecting the first host cell with the target phage; (d) allowing replication of the phage and recombination between the target phage genome and vector to take place whereby the genome of the target phage is modified; (e) propagating resultant phage on a second host cell, which host cell is a host for the marker phage and not the target phage, wherein said propagating indicates that said resultant phage comprise said exogenous DNA sequence; and (f) harvesting the resultant phage.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the exogenous DNA comprises a gene which encodes an antibacterial protein.
 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the gene is under the control of a constitutive promoter.
 4. The method according to claim 2, for the production of a modified bacteriophage capable of infecting a plurality of different target bacteria, which modified bacteriophage includes a SASP which is toxic to the target bacteria; wherein the modified bacteriophage is non-lytic.
 5. The method according to claim 4, wherein the modified bacteriophage expresses a plurality of different host range determinants or tail fibre proteins and wherein each host range determinant has a different bacterial host specificity; or wherein the bacteriophage expresses a host range determinant protein or tail fibre protein which comprises an amino acid sequence from a plurality of different bacteriophages.
 6. The method according to claim 5, wherein the bacterial host specificity of the host range determinants are within the same bacterial species.
 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the first and second target sequences of the target phage genome are non-contiguous.
 8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the first and second target sequences of the target phage genome flank a phage gene, a lysis gene, or part thereof, such that the recombination between the target phage genome and vector inactivates the gene.
 9. The method according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the first and second flanking sequences contains a mutation as compared with the first and second target sequences of the target phage genome.
 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the host range determinant of the marker phage encodes a tail fibre protein or region thereof.
 11. The method according to claim 1, wherein the host range determinant of the marker phage encodes a tail fibre protein which comprises a receptor binding region for binding to the second host cell and a region linking the receptor binding region to the body of the phage.
 12. The method according to claim 11, wherein the receptor binding region is a C-terminal receptor binding region and the region linking the C-terminal receptor binding region to the body of the phage is an N-terminal region.
 13. The method according to claim 12, wherein the C-terminal region has no more than 96% amino acid sequence identity with the C-terminal region of bacteriophage Phi33.
 14. The method according to claim 13, wherein the C-terminal region is from any one of bacteriophage Phi33, LBL3, SPM-1, F8, PR1, KPP12, LMA2, SN, 14-1, JG024, NH-4, PTP47, C36, PTP93 and PTP92.
 15. The method according to claim 13, wherein the C-terminal region amino sequence identity is less than 80%.
 16. The method according to claim 12, wherein the N-terminal region has at least 95% amino acid sequence identity with the N-terminal region of bacteriophage Phi33.
 17. The method according to claim 16, wherein the N-terminal region is from any one of bacteriophage Phi33, LBL3, SPM-1, F8, PB1, KPP12, LMA2, SN, 14-1, JG024, NH-4, PTP47, C36, PTP92 and PTP93.
 18. The method according to claim 12, wherein the tail fibre protein has more than 80% amino acid sequence identity with the tail fibre amino acid sequence of bacteriophage Phi33.
 19. The method according to claim 18, wherein the tail fibre protein is from a bacteriophage selected from Phi33, LBL3, SPM-1, F8, PB1, KPP12, LMA2, SN, 14-1, JG024, NH-4, PTP47, C36, PTP92 and PTP93.
 20. The method according to claim 18, wherein the amino acid sequence identity is more than 95%.
 21. The method according to claim 12, wherein the second host cell is a Pseudomonas host cell. 